Characterization of the Cynomolgus Macaque Model of Marburg Virus Disease and Assessment of Timing for Therapeutic Treatment Testing.

Marburg virus (MARV) causes severe disease and high mortality in humans. The objective of this study was to characterize disease manifestations and pathogenesis in cynomolgus macaques exposed to MARV. The results of this natural history study may be used to identify features of MARV disease useful in defining the ideal treatment initiation time for subsequent evaluations of investigational therapeutics using this model. Twelve cynomolgus macaques were exposed to a target dose of 1000 plaque-forming units MARV by the intramuscular route, and six control animals were mock-exposed. The primary endpoint of this study was survival to Day 28 post-inoculation (PI). Anesthesia events were minimized with the use of central venous catheters for periodic blood collection, and temperature and activity were continuously monitored by telemetry. All mock-exposed animals remained healthy for the duration of the study. All 12 MARV-exposed animals (100%) became infected, developed illness, and succumbed on Days 8-10 PI. On Day 4 PI, 11 of the 12 MARV-exposed animals had statistically significant temperature elevations over baseline. Clinically observable signs of MARV disease first appeared on Day 5 PI, when 6 of the 12 animals exhibited reduced responsiveness. Ultimately, systemic inflammation, coagulopathy, and direct cytopathic effects of MARV all contributed to multiorgan dysfunction, organ failure, and death or euthanasia of all MARV-exposed animals. Manifestations of MARV disease, including fever, systemic viremia, lymphocytolysis, coagulopathy, and hepatocellular damage, could be used as triggers for initiation of treatment in future therapeutic efficacy studies.

Expanded profiling of Remdesivir as a broad-spectrum antiviral and low potential for interaction with other medications in vitro.

Remdesivir (GS-5734; VEKLURY) is a single diastereomer monophosphoramidate prodrug of an adenosine analog (GS-441524). Remdesivir is taken up by target cells and metabolized in multiple steps to form the active nucleoside triphosphate (GS-443902), which acts as a potent inhibitor of viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerases. Remdesivir and GS-441524 have antiviral activity against multiple RNA viruses. Here, we expand the evaluation of remdesivir's antiviral activity to members of the families Flaviviridae, Picornaviridae, Filoviridae, Orthomyxoviridae, and Hepadnaviridae. Using cell-based assays, we show that remdesivir can inhibit infection of flaviviruses (such as dengue 1-4, West Nile, yellow fever, Zika viruses), picornaviruses (such as enterovirus and rhinovirus), and filoviruses (such as various Ebola, Marburg, and Sudan virus isolates, including novel geographic isolates), but is ineffective or is significantly less effective against orthomyxoviruses (influenza A and B viruses), or hepadnaviruses B, D, and E. In addition, remdesivir shows no antagonistic effect when combined with favipiravir, another broadly acting antiviral nucleoside analog, and has minimal interaction with a panel of concomitant medications. Our data further support remdesivir as a broad-spectrum antiviral agent that has the potential to address multiple unmet medical needs, including those related to antiviral pandemic preparedness.

Remdesivir is efficacious in rhesus monkeys exposed to aerosolized Ebola virus.

Efficacious therapeutics for Ebola virus disease are in great demand. Ebola virus infections mediated by mucosal exposure, and aerosolization in particular, present a novel challenge due to nontypical massive early infection of respiratory lymphoid tissues. We performed a randomized and blinded study to compare outcomes from vehicle-treated and remdesivir-treated rhesus monkeys in a lethal model of infection resulting from aerosolized Ebola virus exposure. Remdesivir treatment initiated 4 days after exposure was associated with a significant survival benefit, significant reduction in serum viral titer, and improvements in clinical pathology biomarker levels and lung histology compared to vehicle treatment. These observations indicate that remdesivir may have value in countering aerosol-induced Ebola virus disease.

Remdesivir (GS-5734) Is Efficacious in Cynomolgus Macaques Infected With Marburg Virus.

Marburg virus (MARV) is a filovirus with documented human case-fatality rates of up to 90%. Here, we evaluated the therapeutic efficacy of remdesivir (GS-5734) in nonhuman primates experimentally infected with MARV. Beginning 4 or 5 days post inoculation, cynomolgus macaques were treated once daily for 12 days with vehicle, 5 mg/kg remdesivir, or a 10-mg/kg loading dose followed by 5 mg/kg remdesivir. All vehicle-control animals died, whereas 83% of animals receiving a 10-mg/kg loading dose of remdesivir survived, as did 50% of animals receiving a 5-mg/kg remdesivir regimen. Remdesivir-treated animals exhibited improved clinical scores, lower plasma viral RNA, and improved markers of kidney function, liver function, and coagulopathy versus vehicle-control animals. The small molecule remdesivir showed therapeutic efficacy in this Marburg virus disease model with treatment initiation 5 days post inoculation, supporting further assessment of remdesivir for the treatment of Marburg virus disease in humans.

Adjuvant selection impacts the correlates of vaccine protection against Ebola infection.

The establishment of correlates of protection is particularly relevant in the context of rare, highly lethal pathogens such as filoviruses. We previously demonstrated that an Ebola glycoprotein virus-like particle (VLP) vaccine, when given as two intramuscular doses, conferred protection from challenge in a murine challenge model. In this study, we compared the ability of Advax inulin-based adjuvant formulations (Advax1-4) to enhance Ebola VLP vaccine protection in mice. After two immunizations, Advax-adjuvants that included a TLR9 agonist component induced high IgG responses, with complete protection against Ebola virus challenge. Although anti-Ebola IgG levels waned over time, protection was durable and was still evident 150 days post-immunization. Mice were protected after just a single VLP immunization with Advax-2 or -4 adjuvants. Advax-adjuvanted VLPs induced a stronger IFN-γ, TNF and IL-12 signature and serum transferred from Advax-adjuvanted vaccinees was able to transfer protection to naïve animals, showing that Ebola protection can be achieved by antibodies in the absence of cellular immunity. By contrast, serum from vaccinees incorporating a pICLC adjuvant did not transfer protection despite high IgG levels on ELISA. These data highlight the importance of adjuvant selection for development of a successful Ebola VLP vaccine.

Characterization of Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) in Rhesus Monkeys for Development of EVD Therapeutics.

Recent Ebola virus (EBOV) outbreaks in West Africa and the Democratic Republic of the Congo have highlighted the urgent need for approval of medical countermeasures for treatment and prevention of EBOV disease (EVD). Until recently, when successes were achieved in characterizing the efficacy of multiple experimental EVD therapeutics in humans, the only feasible way to obtain data regarding potential clinical benefits of candidate therapeutics was by conducting well-controlled animal studies. Nonclinical studies are likely to continue to be important tools for screening and development of new candidates with improved pharmacological properties. Here, we describe a natural history study to characterize the time course and order of progression of the disease manifestations of EVD in rhesus monkeys. In 12 rhesus monkeys exposed by the intramuscular route to 1000 plaque-forming units of EBOV, multiple endpoints were monitored for 28 days following exposure. The disease progressed rapidly with mortality events occurring 7-10 days after exposure. Key disease manifestations observed consistently across the infected animals included, but were not limited to, viremia, fever, systemic inflammation, coagulopathy, lymphocytolysis, renal tubular necrosis with mineralization, and hepatocellular degeneration and necrosis.

Cholesterol-conjugated stapled peptides inhibit Ebola and Marburg viruses in vitro and in vivo.

Filoviridae currently includes five official and one proposed genera. Genus Ebolavirus includes five established and one proposed ebolavirus species for Bombali virus (BOMV), Bundibugyo virus (BDBV), Ebola virus (EBOV), Reston virus (RESTV), Sudan virus (SUDV) and Taï Forest virus (TAFV), and genus Marburgvirus includes a single species for Marburg virus (MARV) and Ravn virus (RAVV). Ebola virus (EBOV) has emerged as a significant public health concern since the 2013-2016 Ebola Virus Disease outbreak in Western Africa. Currently, there are no therapeutics approved and the need for Ebola-specific therapeutics remains a gap. In search for anti-Ebola therapies we tested the idea of using inhibitory properties of peptides corresponding to the C-terminal heptad-repeat (HR2) domains of class I fusion proteins against EBOV infection. The fusion protein GP2 of EBOV belongs to class I, suggesting that a similar strategy to HIV may be applied to inhibit EBOV infection. The serum half-life of peptides was expanded by cholesterol conjugation to allow daily dosing. The peptides were further constrained to stabilize a helical structure to increase the potency of inhibition. The EC50s of lead peptides were in low micromolar range, as determined by a high-content imaging test of EBOV-infected cells. Lead peptides were tested in an EBOV lethal mouse model and efficacy of the peptides were determined following twice-daily administration of peptides for 9 days. The most potent peptide was able to protect mice from lethal challenge of mouse-adapted Ebola virus. These data show that engineered peptides coupled with cholesterol can inhibit viral production, protect mice against lethal EBOV infection, and may be used to build novel therapeutics against EBOV.

Multilamellar Vaccine Particle Elicits Potent Immune Activation with Protein Antigens and Protects Mice against Ebola Virus Infection.

Recent outbreaks of emerging infectious diseases, such as Ebola virus disease (EVD), highlight the urgent need to develop effective countermeasures, including prophylactic vaccines. Subunit proteins derived from pathogens provide a safe source of antigens for vaccination, but they are often limited by their low immunogenicity. We have developed a multilamellar vaccine particle (MVP) system composed of lipid-hyaluronic acid multi-cross-linked hybrid nanoparticles for vaccination with protein antigens and demonstrate their efficacy against Ebola virus (EBOV) exposure. MVPs efficiently accumulated in dendritic cells and promote antigen processing. Mice immunized with MVPs elicited robust and long-lasting antigen-specific CD8+ and CD4+ T cell immune responses as well as humoral immunity. A single-dose vaccination with MVPs delivering EBOV glycoprotein achieved an 80% protection rate against lethal EBOV infection. These results suggest that MVPs offer a promising platform for improving recombinant protein-based vaccine approaches.

Vaccine nanoparticles displaying recombinant Ebola virus glycoprotein for induction of potent antibody and polyfunctional T cell responses.

The recent outbreaks of Ebolavirus (EBOV) in West Africa underscore the urgent need to develop an effective EBOV vaccine. Here, we report the development of synthetic nanoparticles as a safe and highly immunogenic platform for vaccination against EBOV. We show that a large recombinant EBOV antigen (rGP) can be incorporated in a configurational manner into lipid-based nanoparticles, termed interbilayer-crosslinked multilamellar vesicles (ICMVs). The epitopes and quaternary structure of rGP were properly maintained on the surfaces of ICMVs formed either with or without nickel nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA)-functionalized lipids. When administered in mice, rGP-ICMVs without NTA-lipids efficiently generated germinal center B cells and polyfunctional T cells while eliciting robust neutralizing antibody responses. This study suggests the potential of vaccine nanoparticles as a delivery platform for configurational, multivalent display of large subunit antigens and induction of neutralizing antibody and T cell responses.

A fixed moderate-dose combination of tiletamine+zolazepam outperforms midazolam in induction of short-term immobilization of ball pythons (Python regius).

Laboratory animals are commonly anesthetized to prevent pain and distress and to provide safe handling. Anesthesia procedures are well-developed for common laboratory mammals, but not as well established in reptiles. We assessed the performance of intramuscularly injected tiletamine (dissociative anesthetic) and zolazepam (benzodiazepine sedative) in fixed combination (2 mg/kg and 3 mg/kg) in comparison to 2 mg/kg of midazolam (benzodiazepine sedative) in ball pythons (Python regius). We measured heart and respiratory rates and quantified induction parameters (i.e., time to loss of righting reflex, time to loss of withdrawal reflex) and recovery parameters (i.e., time to regain righting reflex, withdrawal reflex, normal behavior). Mild decreases in heart and respiratory rates (median decrease of <10 beats per minute and <5 breaths per minute) were observed for most time points among all three anesthetic dose groups. No statistically significant difference between the median time to loss of righting reflex was observed among animals of any group (p = 0.783). However, the withdrawal reflex was lost in all snakes receiving 3mg/kg of tiletamine+zolazepam but not in all animals of the other two groups (p = 0.0004). In addition, the time for animals to regain the righting reflex and resume normal behavior was longer in the drug combination dose groups compared to the midazolam group (p = 0.0055). Our results indicate that midazolam is an adequate sedative for ball pythons but does not suffice to achieve reliable immobilization or anesthesia, whereas tiletamine+zolazepam achieves short-term anesthesia in a dose-dependent manner.

Intracellular conversion and in vivo dose response of favipiravir (T-705) in rodents infected with Ebola virus.

During the 2013-2016 Ebola virus (EBOV) outbreak in West Africa, our team at USAMRIID evaluated the antiviral activity of a number of compounds, including favipiravir (T-705), in vitro and in mouse and nonhuman primate (NHP) models of Ebola virus disease. In this short communication, we present our findings for favipiravir in cell culture and in mice, while an accompanying paper presents the results of NHP studies. We confirmed previous reports that favipiravir has anti-EBOV activity in mice. Additionally, we found that the active form of favipiravir is generated in mice in tissues relevant for the pathogenesis of EBOV infection. Finally, we observed that protection can be achieved in mice down to 8 mg/kg/day, which is lower than the dosing regimens previously reported. An accompanying paper reports the results of treating nonhuman primates infected with EBOV or with Marburg virus with oral or intravenous favipiravir.

Efficacy of favipiravir (T-705) in nonhuman primates infected with Ebola virus or Marburg virus.

Favipiravir is a broad-spectrum antiviral agent that has demonstrated efficacy against Ebola virus (EBOV) in rodents. However, there are no published reports of favipiravir efficacy for filovirus infection of nonhuman primates (NHPs). Here we evaluated the pharmacokinetic profile of favipiravir in NHPs, as well as in vivo efficacy against two filoviruses, EBOV and Marburg virus (MARV). While no survival benefit was observed in two studies employing once- or twice-daily oral dosing of favipiravir during EBOV infection of NHPs, an antiviral effect was observed in terms of extended time-to-death and reduced levels of viral RNA. However, oral dosing in biosafety level-4 (BSL-4) presents logistical and technical challenges, and repeated anesthesia events may potentially worsen survival outcome in animals. For the third study of treatment of MARV infection, we therefore made use of catheters, jackets, and tethers for intravenous (IV) dosing and blood collection, which minimized the requirement for repeated anesthesia events. When MARV infection was treated with IV favipiravir, five of six animals (83%) survived infection, while all untreated NHPs succumbed. An accompanying report presents the results of favipiravir treatment of EBOV infection in mice.

T-cell-dependent mechanisms promote Ebola VLP-induced antibody responses, but are dispensable for vaccine-mediated protection.

Humoral responses are essential for the protective efficacy of most Ebola virus (EBOV) candidate vaccines; however, the in vivo development of protective anti-EBOV B-cell responses is poorly defined. Here, by using the virus-like particle (VLP) as a model antigen, we demonstrate that humoral responses are generated through follicular B-cell and T-cell-dependent mechanisms in a mouse model of EBOV infection. In addition, we show that the inclusion of the clinical-grade dsRNA adjuvant known as poly-ICLC in VLP vaccinations both augments and sustains germinal center B-cell reactions, antigen-specific B-cell frequencies and anti-EBOV serum titers. Finally, we used mice that were deficient in either B-cells or T-cell-dependent antibody production to distinguish the contributing roles of EBOV humoral responses. We demonstrate that while anti-EBOV antibody responses promote protection, VLP-vaccinated mice can survive EBOV infection in the absence of detectable anti-EBOV antibodies. Moreover, we found that adjuvant signaling could circumvent the complete requirement for B-cell immunity in protection against EBOV. Collectively, these studies may prove valuable for the characterization and future development of additional EBOV vaccine candidates.

Assessment of the potential for host-targeted iminosugars UV-4 and UV-5 activity against filovirus infections in vitro and in vivo.

Iminosugars are host-directed antivirals with broad-spectrum activity. The iminosugar, N-butyl-deoxynojirimycin (NB-DNJ or Miglustat®), is used in humans for treatment of Gaucher's disease and has mild antiviral properties. More potent analogs of NB-DNJ have been generated and have demonstrated activity against a variety of viruses including flaviviruses, influenza, herpesviruses and filoviruses. In the current study, a panel of analogs based on NB-DNJ was analyzed for activity against Ebola (EBOV) and Marburg viruses (MARV). The antiviral activity of NB-DNJ (UV-1), UV-2, UV-3, UV-4 and UV-5 against both EBOV and MARV was demonstrated in Vero cells. Subsequent studies to examine the activity of UV-4 and UV-5 using rodent models of EBOV and MARV were performed. In vivo efficacy studies provided inconsistent data following treatment with iminosugars using filovirus mouse models. A tolerability study in nonhuman primates demonstrated that UV-4 could be administered at much higher dose levels than rodents. Since UV-4 was active in vitro, had been demonstrated to be active against influenza and dengue in vivo, and was being tested in a Phase 1 clinical trial, a small proof-of-concept nonhuman primate trial was performed to determine whether this antiviral candidate could provide clinical benefit to EBOV-infected individuals. Administration of UV-4B did not provide a clinical or survival benefit to macaques infected with EBOV-Makona; however, dosing of animals was not optimal in this study. Efficacy may be improved by thrice daily dosing (e.g. by nasogastric tube feeding) to match the efficacious dosing regimens demonstrated against dengue and influenza viruses.

Therapeutic efficacy of the small molecule GS-5734 against Ebola virus in rhesus monkeys.

The most recent Ebola virus outbreak in West Africa, which was unprecedented in the number of cases and fatalities, geographic distribution, and number of nations affected, highlights the need for safe, effective, and readily available antiviral agents for treatment and prevention of acute Ebola virus (EBOV) disease (EVD) or sequelae. No antiviral therapeutics have yet received regulatory approval or demonstrated clinical efficacy. Here we report the discovery of a novel small molecule GS-5734, a monophosphoramidate prodrug of an adenosine analogue, with antiviral activity against EBOV. GS-5734 exhibits antiviral activity against multiple variants of EBOV and other filoviruses in cell-based assays. The pharmacologically active nucleoside triphosphate (NTP) is efficiently formed in multiple human cell types incubated with GS-5734 in vitro, and the NTP acts as an alternative substrate and RNA-chain terminator in primer-extension assays using a surrogate respiratory syncytial virus RNA polymerase. Intravenous administration of GS-5734 to nonhuman primates resulted in persistent NTP levels in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (half-life, 14 h) and distribution to sanctuary sites for viral replication including testes, eyes, and brain. In a rhesus monkey model of EVD, once-daily intravenous administration of 10 mg kg(-1) GS-5734 for 12 days resulted in profound suppression of EBOV replication and protected 100% of EBOV-infected animals against lethal disease, ameliorating clinical disease signs and pathophysiological markers, even when treatments were initiated three days after virus exposure when systemic viral RNA was detected in two out of six treated animals. These results show the first substantive post-exposure protection by a small-molecule antiviral compound against EBOV in nonhuman primates. The broad-spectrum antiviral activity of GS-5734 in vitro against other pathogenic RNA viruses, including filoviruses, arenaviruses, and coronaviruses, suggests the potential for wider medical use. GS-5734 is amenable to large-scale manufacturing, and clinical studies investigating the drug safety and pharmacokinetics are ongoing.

Adjuvant-enhanced CD4 T Cell Responses are Critical to Durable Vaccine Immunity.

Protein-based vaccines offer a safer alternative to live-attenuated or inactivated vaccines but have limited immunogenicity. The identification of adjuvants that augment immunogenicity, specifically in a manner that is durable and antigen-specific, is therefore critical for advanced development. In this study, we use the filovirus virus-like particle (VLP) as a model protein-based vaccine in order to evaluate the impact of four candidate vaccine adjuvants on enhancing long term protection from Ebola virus challenge. Adjuvants tested include poly-ICLC (Hiltonol), MPLA, CpG 2395, and alhydrogel. We compared and contrasted antibody responses, neutralizing antibody responses, effector T cell responses, and T follicular helper (Tfh) cell frequencies with each adjuvant's impact on durable protection. We demonstrate that in this system, the most effective adjuvant elicits a Th1-skewed antibody response and strong CD4 T cell responses, including an increase in Tfh frequency. Using immune-deficient animals and adoptive transfer of serum and cells from vaccinated animals into naïve animals, we further demonstrate that serum and CD4 T cells play a critical role in conferring protection within effective vaccination regimens. These studies inform on the requirements of long term immune protection, which can potentially be used to guide screening of clinical-grade adjuvants for vaccine clinical development.

Heat fixation inactivates viral and bacterial pathogens and is compatible with downstream MALDI mass spectrometry tissue imaging.

BACKGROUND: Tissue samples should be fixed and permanently stabilized as soon as possible ex-vivo to avoid variations in proteomic content. Tissues collected from studies involving infectious microorganisms, must face the additional challenge of pathogen inactivation before downstream proteomic analysis can be safely performed. Heat fixation using the Denator Stabilizor System (Gothenburg, Sweden) utilizes conductive heating, under a mild vacuum, to rapidly eliminate enzymatic degradation in tissue samples. Although many studies have reported on the ability of this method to stop proteolytic degradation and other sample changes immediately and permanently, pathogen inactivation has not been studied. RESULTS: We examined the ability of the heat fixation workflow to inactivate bacterial and viral pathogens and the suitability of this tissue for Matrix Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization mass spectrometry imaging (MALDI-MSI). Mice were infected with viral or bacterial pathogens representing two strains of Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis virus (VEEV) and two strains of Burkholderia. Additionally, a tissue mimetic model was employed using Escherichia, Klebsiella and Acinetobacter isolates. Infected tissue samples harvested from each animal or mimetic model were sectioned in half. One half was heat fixed and the other remained untreated. Lysates from each sample were checked for organism viability by performing plaque (infectivity) assays or plating on nutrient agar for colony forming unit (CFU) calculation. Untreated infected control tissue demonstrated the presence of each viable pathogen by positive plaque or colony formation, whereas heat fixation resulted in complete inactivation of both the viral and bacterial pathogens. MALDI-MSI images produced from heat fixed tissue were reflective of molecular distributions within brain, spleen and lung tissue structures. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that heat fixation inactivates viral and bacterial pathogens and is compatible with proteomic analysis by MALDI-MSI. This treatment will enable the use of infected tissue from studies performed in bio-safety level 3 laboratories with VEEV and Burkholderia to be safely used for proteomic, small molecule drug detection, and imaging mass spectrometry analysis.

Characterization of clinical and immunological parameters during Ebola virus infection of rhesus macaques.

The rhesus macaque serves as an animal model for Ebola virus (EBOV) infection. A thorough understanding of EBOV infection in this species would aid in further development of filovirus therapeutics and vaccines. In this study, pathological and immunological data from EBOV-infected rhesus macaques are presented. Changes in blood chemistries, hematology, coagulation, and immune parameters during infection, which were consistently observed in the animals, are presented. In an animal that survived challenge, a delay was observed in the detection of viral RNA and inflammatory cytokines and chemokines which may have contributed to survival. Collectively, these data add to the body of knowledge regarding EBOV pathogenesis in rhesus macaques and emphasize the reproducibility of the rhesus macaque challenge model.

Cross-protection conferred by filovirus virus-like particles containing trimeric hybrid glycoprotein.

Filoviruses are causative agents of hemorrhagic fever, and to date no effective vaccine or therapeutic has been approved to combat infection. Filovirus glycoprotein (GP) is the critical immunogenic component of filovirus vaccines, eliciting high levels of antibody after successful vaccination. Previous work has shown that protection against both Ebola virus (EBOV) and Marburg virus (MARV) can be achieved by vaccinating with a mixture of virus-like particles (VLPs) expressing either EBOV GP or MARV GP. In this study, the potential for eliciting effective immune responses against EBOV, Sudan virus, and MARV with a single GP construct was tested. Trimeric hybrid GPs were produced that expressed the sequence of Marburg GP2 in conjunction with a hybrid GP1 composed EBOV and Sudan virus GP sequences. VLPs expressing these constructs, along with EBOV VP40, provided comparable protection against MARV challenge, resulting in 75 or 100% protection. Protection from EBOV challenge differed depending upon the hybrid used, however, with one conferring 75% protection and one conferring no protection. By comparing the overall antibody titers and the neutralizing antibody titers specific for each virus, it is shown that higher antibody responses were elicited by the C terminal region of GP1 than by the N terminal region, and this correlated with protection. These data collectively suggest that GP2 and the C terminal region of GP1 are highly immunogenic, and they advance progress toward the development of a pan-filovirus vaccine.

Toll-like receptor agonist augments virus-like particle-mediated protection from Ebola virus with transient immune activation.

Identifying safe and effective adjuvants is critical for the advanced development of protein-based vaccines. Pattern recognition receptor (PRR) agonists are increasingly being explored as potential adjuvants, but there is concern that the efficacy of these molecules may be dependent on potentially dangerous levels of non-specific immune activation. The filovirus virus-like particle (VLP) vaccine protects mice, guinea pigs, and nonhuman primates from viral challenge. In this study, we explored the impact of a stabilized dsRNA mimic, polyICLC, on VLP vaccination of C57BL/6 mice and Hartley guinea pigs. We show that at dose levels as low as 100 ng, the adjuvant increased the efficacy of the vaccine in mice. Antigen-specific, polyfunctional CD4 and CD8 T cell responses and antibody responses increased significantly upon inclusion of adjuvant. To determine whether the efficacy of polyICLC correlated with systemic immune activation, we examined serum cytokine levels and cellular activation in the draining lymph node. PolyICLC administration was associated with increases in TNFα, IL6, MCP1, MIP1α, KC, and MIP1ß levels in the periphery and with the activation of dendritic cells (DCs), NK cells, and B cells. However, this activation resolved within 24 to 72 hours at efficacious adjuvant dose levels. These studies are the first to examine the polyICLC-induced enhancement of antigen-specific immune responses in the context of non-specific immune activation, and they provide a framework from which to consider adjuvant dose levels.